A limited number of studies have compared ECAS against commonly used chlorine agents for decentralised disinfection applications 20, 21. Ultraviolet and ozone are well established as disinfection technologies within both decentralised/POU 12, 13 and large scale drinking water treatment 14, 15, but an added benefit of implementing electrochemcially activated solutions is it has capability to be used externally to water treatment systems as part of food production 16, 17 or in healthcare settings 18, 19. The use of conventional chlorine-based disinfectants, such as hypochlorite (OCl -), within POU water disinfection requires the storage and transportation of hazardous chemicals and can also cause the formation of harmful DBPs and the deterioration of taste and odour 11. The World Health Organization recommends free chlorine concentrations of between 0.2 and 0.5 mg L −1 at point of delivery and use 3. Point-of-use drinking water treatment systems do not require distribution networks and therefore negate the need to maintain residual chlorine levels. Such by-products are known to exhibit mutagenic and carcinogenic properties 10 and are therefore highly undesirable. Unfortunately, the use of chlorine disinfectants gives rise to the formation of disinfection by-products 6, 7 such as trihalomethanes 8 and haloacetic acids 9. The recommended limit for these indicator organisms in treated water is zero CFU 100 mL −1, due to their potential pathogenic nature 3, 5. Indicator organisms such as Escherichia coli, total coliforms, Enterococci and Clostridium perfingens 3, 5, that infer the presence of faecal matter, are monitored to ensure the effectiveness of disinfection treatment processes. The presence of residual chlorine (0.5–5 mg L −1) within redistribution networks limits microbial re-growth, helping to maintain biologically safe water at the point of delivery 3. Chlorine, in the form of sodium hypochlorite, is the most common disinfectant due to low cost and effective antimicrobial properties 4. The primary role of drinking water disinfection is to control pathogenic microorganisms and to ensure that treated water is biologically safe to drink. Gross National Income per capita is $12,476) which predominantly utilise centralised drinking water treatment systems to ensure the production and supply of biologically safe water 3. This is especially relevant for low income (i.e. Based on this evidence disinfectants where HOCl is the dominant chlorine species (HOCl and ECAS) would be appropriate alternative chlorine-based disinfectants for POU drinking water applications.Ī major source of human disease is via the consumption of biologically contaminated water 1.
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aeruginosa biofilms at ≥50 mg L −1 free chlorine. However, ECAS exhibited significantly greater anti-biofilm activity compared to OCl - and HOCl against P. coli at >50 mg L −1 free chlorine, in the presence of organic loading (bovine serum albumen).
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HOCl exhibited the greatest antimicrobial activity against planktonic E.
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The anti-biofilm activity was compared utilising established sessile Pseudomonas aeruginosa within a Centre for Disease Control biofilm reactor. The relative antimicrobial activity was compared within bactericidal suspension assays (BS EN 1040 and BS EN 1276) using Escherichia coli. This study investigated the antimicrobial and anti-biofilm activity of three chlorine-based disinfectants (hypochlorite ions, hypochlorous acid and electrochemically activated solutions ) for use in POU drinking water applications. The capability of point-of-use drinking water treatment systems has gained interest in locations where centralised treatment systems and distribution networks are not practical. Chlorine solutions are used extensively for the production of biologically safe drinking water.